Details about the victorian era

Administration and Legislation

(Bianca Dabu, p. 123-124)

The new Poor Law turned the working class against the “oppressing” class; the endless social movement in the industrial districts, as well as forever lasting misery, made possible the appearance of the Chartism. The Charter of the People (1838) was a political cry, but it had social reasons. The policy of Free Exchange was in the interest of the middle class.

*****The Charter was adopted at the Chartist Congress, held at Manchester; the movement split afterwards, in a right wing, that of the “moral force men’, and the left wing, of the “physical force men”.*****

The abolishment of Corn Law (1846) reconciled the social classes and avoided the revolutionary actions. The commerce recovered when import duties were reduced for many products. The confrontation between the landlords and manufacturers was ended by the Act of Mines (1842) and the Act of Ten Working Hours in the Factories (1847).

***** The law restricted the number of working hours for adults (women and men). A similar law for children had been given in 1833.*****

During Gladstone’s ministry a permanent Civil Service was organized to serve the ministries at Whitehall. At the same tine, all candidates for civil services had to take an exam. The Reform Act (1867) had to be passed by the Parliament, as many big trade unions militated together with middle classes for the right to vote, although the working class was not given the right by then. The Agrarian Law of Ireland (1870) brought a more efficient legislation for land rented.

***** The 1867 Reform included in the voting category the rest of non-voters excepted from the previous reform bill: all householders of small proprieties and occupants of lodgings worth 10 pounds a year unfurnished. *****

An Education Act (1871) settled a university commission to work on a program of scholarships and university degrees for people of different religious believes. William Forster settled the primary education on a national basis (1870). Gladstone’s reform concerned the military system. There was forbidden the custom of buying military degrees and reserve army was recruited on a short-term basis.

Disraeli’s ministry adopted the Public Health Act (1875), which fought against misery and slums and unwholesome conditions of life. Penal Code Improvement Act deprived the unions of the right to organize strike pickets (1871). The great defeat of Gladstone’s second ministry was the rejection of the House Bill of Ireland’s separate legislature (1886).

***** Trade unions existed since the 18th century, but they were not legal, they had been recognized by a law in 1824. One of the most remarkable was Amalgamated Society of Engineers settled in 1851, which had 30.000 members. It was at the same time a trade union and a mutual fund. The first leader was William Allen, the prototype of English reformer trade union member during the Victorian age. *****

Education and Science

(Bianca Dabu, p. 128, 129)

Prince Albert had a great interest in his people’s education. He has been surprised to find out about the great number of illiterates in England in a percentage much higher than in other countries on the continent. Forster Law (1870) settled the primary educational system on national basis. The aristocratic and middle class children studied in public schools but for a long time poor people had no other alternative but church schools. The law also stated the settlement of free Christian schools (for all confessions) in rural areas. Thus, education became compulsory (1891) and free of charge (since 1912). The universities of Oxford and Cambridge opened their gates to all non-conformists and the grants were allowed by specialized commissions.

***** Florence Nightingale is the founder of modern civil and military nursery system during the Crimean war (1854-1855); enduring the horrors of the war and the cold Russian winter she took care of the wounded soldiers in a very heroic manner.*****

***** Elisabeth Garret became a doctor in Paris and secured the opening of London medical degrees to her sex in 1877; she settled a dispensary for women and staffed exclusively by women. Nowadays, the hospital is called after her.*****

Education for girls dates back to 1848-1850, when the first schools, Queen’s College or Cheltenham Ladies College began their activity. The educational programs developed for women in universities too, as Oxford and Cambridge founded colleges to allow young ladies a professional career. Important women set the tone for certain emancipation. Florence Nightingale and her band of nurses or Elisabeth Garret Anderson who was obliged to take her medical degree in Paris are two of the best known examples.

Although in England sciences were less studied in schools, some of the greatest scientists of the world were English. The most valuable scientific and engineering discoveries were implemented first in London. In 1882, the first sections of London Underground were opened by the Prime Minister Gladstone and the machine gun was invented by Maxim in London, too. Rich people houses were illuminated by incandescent electric light since 1882. The first telephone exchange was set up in 1879. Alexander Graham Bell (though Scottish and living in Canada), presented his invention to the British Association at Plymouth in 1877 and David Hughes invented a better microphone and telephonic system. James Starley promoted the bicycle with a chain drive to the rear wheel and Dunloop made the pudding tire in 1888.

***** Lord Kelvin was another man of science, professor at Glasgow with great contributions in thermodynamics and electromagnetism.*****

One of the scientists who overturned both science and religion was Charles Darwin with his work The Origin of the Species. He demonstrated that the evolution of the species is a matter of natural selection in their fight for existence and supremacy. Evolutionism had a great influence on the philosophy of knowledge in the 19th century.

***** Darwin also tried to demonstrate that human beings evolved from monkey in his work The Origins of Men and Natural Selection.*****

The Great Exhibition at the Crystal Palace in 1851 was designed to prove British superiority in industrial economic and military fields. Prince Albert who advocated the advancement of industry and science conceived the exhibition as a triumph of new self-consciousness and industrial supremacy. Over 13.000 exhibits were displayed and over 6.200.000 visitors came to see it. The Crystal Palace was divided in many sections and among the exhibits one could see: Jacquard loom, tools, reaping machines, kitchen appliances, steel-making displays, envelope machines. The national exhibition included inventions from all parts of the empire.

***** Crystal Palace was a wonder itself. It was designed by Sir Joseph Paxton in only ten days and was a huge iron goliath with over a million feet of glass. It was initially located in the Hyde Park, in London, but after the exhibition it was moved to Sydenham Hill and was reconstructed as a Victorian park. It is also closely connected to important sporting events which were staged there from the very early days. In modern times it was associated with the development of television.*****